Social Stratification Without Genetic Differentiation at the Xisima Site in the Late Shang Dynasty

Abstract

Ancient DNA and archaeological studies indicate the Central Plain's pivotal role in the cultural and genetic evolution of ancient China. However, limited genome-wide data have constrained our understanding of this region's population history during the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty (around 1600 to 1046 BCE). Here, we present genome-wide data from 11 individuals from the Xisima Cemetery in Central Plain, a site exhibiting clear burial evidence of social stratification dating to the Late Shang Dynasty (around 1300 to 1046 BCE). Genetic analyses reveal that all Xisima individuals can be modeled as direct, unadmixed descendants of Late Neolithic Central Plain–related people. We found no systematic genetic differentiation between individuals buried in high-grade (south-to-north) and low-grade (east-to-west) tombs, indicating genetic homogeneity across social strata. These results demonstrate that social stratification at Xisima occurred without corresponding genetic distinction, supporting the decoupling of social hierarchy from significant genetic differentiation in this Shang community.